Writing

"Write" redirects here. For other uses, see
Write (disambiguation) .
The Rosetta Stone with writing in three
different scripts, was instrumental in
deciphering Ancient Egyptian.
Writing is a medium of human communication
that represents language and emotion with signs
and symbols. In most languages, writing is a
complement to speech or spoken language .
Writing is not a language, but a tool used to
make languages be read. Within a language
system, writing relies on many of the same
structures as speech, such as vocabulary,
grammar , and semantics, with the added
dependency of a system of signs or symbols.
The result of writing is called text , and the
recipient of text is called a reader . Motivations
for writing include publication , storytelling,
correspondence, record keeping and diary .
Writing has been instrumental in keeping history ,
maintaining culture, dissemination of knowledge
through the media and the formation of legal
systems.
As human societies emerged, the development
of writing was driven by pragmatic exigencies
such as exchanging information, maintaining
financial accounts, codifying laws and recording
history. Around the 4th millennium BC, the
complexity of trade and administration in
Mesopotamia outgrew human memory, and
writing became a more dependable method of
recording and presenting transactions in a
permanent form. [1] In both ancient Egypt and
Mesoamerica , writing may have evolved through
calendric and a political necessity for recording
historical and environmental events.
Means for recording
information
H.G. Wells argued that writing has the ability to
"put agreements, laws, commandments on
record. It made the growth of states larger than
the old city states possible. It made a
continuous historical consciousness possible.
The command of the priest or king and his seal
could go far beyond his sight and voice and
could survive his death". [2]
Writing systems
Main article: Writing system
Alphabetic writing is a frequent category in
human communication .
The major writing systems—methods of
inscription—broadly fall into five categories:
logographic , syllabic, alphabetic, featural , and
ideographic (symbols for ideas). A sixth
category, pictographic , is insufficient to
represent language on its own, but often forms
the core of logographies.
Logographies
A logogram is a written character which
represents a word or morpheme . A vast number
of logograms are needed to write Chinese
characters, cuneiform , and Mayan, where a glyph
may stand for a morpheme, a syllable, or both—
("logoconsonantal" in the case of hieroglyphs).
Many logograms have an ideographic component
(Chinese "radicals", hieroglyphic "determiners").
For example, in Mayan, the glyph for "fin",
pronounced "ka", was also used to represent the
syllable "ka" whenever the pronunciation of a
logogram needed to be indicated, or when there
was no logogram. In Chinese, about 90% of
characters are compounds of a semantic
(meaning) element called a radical with an
existing character to indicate the pronunciation,
called a phonetic. However, such phonetic
elements complement the logographic elements,
rather than vice versa.
The main logographic system in use today is
Chinese characters, used with some modification
for the various languages or dialects of China ,
Japan, and sometimes in Korean despite the fact
that in South and North Korea , the phonetic
Hangul system is mainly used.
Syllabaries
A syllabary is a set of written symbols that
represent (or approximate) syllables. A glyph in
a syllabary typically represents a consonant
followed by a vowel, or just a vowel alone,
though in some scripts more complex syllables
(such as consonant-vowel-consonant, or
consonant-consonant-vowel) may have dedicated
glyphs. Phonetically related syllables are not so
indicated in the script. For instance, the syllable
"ka" may look nothing like the syllable "ki", nor
will syllables with the same vowels be similar.
Syllabaries are best suited to languages with a
relatively simple syllable structure, such as
Japanese. Other languages that use syllabic
writing include the Linear B script for Mycenaean
Greek ; Cherokee ; Ndjuka , an English-based
creole language of Surinam ; and the Vai script of
Liberia . Most logographic systems have a strong
syllabic component. Ethiopic , though technically
an abugida , has fused consonants and vowels
together to the point where it is learned as if it
were a syllabary.
Alphabets
See also: History of the alphabet
An alphabet is a set of symbols, each of which
represents or historically represented a phoneme
of the language. In a perfectly phonological
alphabet, the phonemes and letters would
correspond perfectly in two directions: a writer
could predict the spelling of a word given its
pronunciation, and a speaker could predict the
pronunciation of a word given its spelling.
As languages often evolve independently of their
writing systems, and writing systems have been
borrowed for languages they were not designed
for, the degree to which letters of an alphabet
correspond to phonemes of a language varies
greatly from one language to another and even
within a single language.
Abjads
In most of the writing systems of the Middle
East, it is usually only the consonants of a word
that are written, although vowels may be
indicated by the addition of various diacritical
marks. Writing systems based primarily on
marking the consonant phonemes alone date
back to the hieroglyphs of ancient Egypt. Such
systems are called abjads, derived from the
Arabic word for "alphabet".
Abugidas
In most of the alphabets of India and Southeast
Asia, vowels are indicated through diacritics or
modification of the shape of the consonant.
These are called abugidas. Some abugidas, such
as Ethiopic and Cree, are learned by children as
syllabaries, and so are often called "syllabics".
However, unlike true syllabaries, there is not an
independent glyph for each syllable.
Sometimes the term "alphabet" is restricted to
systems with separate letters for consonants and
vowels, such as the Latin alphabet, although
abugidas and abjads may also be accepted as
alphabets. Because of this use, Greek is often
considered to be the first alphabet.
Featural scripts
A featural script notates the building blocks of
the phonemes that make up a language. For
instance, all sounds pronounced with the lips
("labial" sounds) may have some element in
common. In the Latin alphabet, this is
accidentally the case with the letters "b" and "p";
however, labial "m" is completely dissimilar, and
the similar-looking "q" and "d" are not labial. In
Korean hangul, however, all four labial
consonants are based on the same basic
element, but in practice, Korean is learned by
children as an ordinary alphabet, and the featural
elements tend to pass unnoticed.
Another featural script is SignWriting , the most
popular writing system for many sign languages ,
where the shapes and movements of the hands
and face are represented iconically. Featural
scripts are also common in fictional or invented
systems, such as J.R.R. Tolkien 's Tengwar.
Historical significance of writing
systems
Olin Levi Warner, tympanum representing Writing,
above exterior of main entrance doors, Thomas
Jefferson Building , Washington DC, 1896.
Historians draw a sharp distinction between
prehistory and history, with history defined by the
advent of writing. The cave paintings and
petroglyphs of prehistoric peoples can be
considered precursors of writing, but they are not
considered true writing because they did not
represent language directly.
Writing systems develop and change based on
the needs of the people who use them.
Sometimes the shape, orientation, and meaning
of individual signs changes over time. By tracing
the development of a script, it is possible to
learn about the needs of the people who used
the script as well as how the script changed over
time.
Tools and materials
See also: writing implements
The many tools and writing materials used
throughout history include stone tablets , clay
tablets , bamboo slats, papyrus, wax tablets ,
vellum, parchment , paper, copperplate , styluses,
quills , ink brushes, pencils , pens, and many
styles of lithography. The Incas used knotted
cords known as quipu (or khipu) for keeping
records. [3]
The typewriter and various forms of word
processors have subsequently become
widespread writing tools, and various studies
have compared the ways in which writers have
framed the experience of writing with such tools
as compared with the pen or pencil. [4][5][6][7]
[8]
History
Main articles: Proto-writing and History of
writing
Neolithic writing
Amulet of the Tărtăria tablets , the earliest
found example of the Old European script and
of human writing in the world generally,
dating to 5500–5300 BC. [9] It is a product of
the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture that was in
Romania and neighbouring regions.
By definition, the modern practice of history
begins with written records. Evidence of human
culture without writing is the realm of prehistory .
The Dispilio Tablet (Greece), Jiahu symbols
(China) and Tărtăria tablets (Romania), which
have been carbon dated to the 6th millennium
BC, are recent discoveries of the earliest known
neolithic writings.
Mesopotamia
While neolithic writing is a current research topic,
conventional history assumes that the writing
process first evolved from economic necessity in
the ancient Near East. Writing most likely began
as a consequence of political expansion in
ancient cultures, which needed reliable means for
transmitting information, maintaining financial
accounts, keeping historical records, and similar
activities. Around the 4th millennium BC, the
complexity of trade and administration outgrew
the power of memory, and writing became a
more dependable method of recording and
presenting transactions in a permanent form. [1]
Globular envelope with a
cluster of accountancy tokens,
Uruk period, from Susa. Louvre
Museum
Archaeologist Denise Schmandt-Besserat
determined the link between previously
uncategorized clay "tokens", the oldest of which
have been found in the Zagros region of Iran,
and the first known writing, Mesopotamian
cuneiform . [10] In approximately 8000 BC, the
Mesopotamians began using clay tokens to
count their agricultural and manufactured goods.
Later they began placing these tokens inside
large, hollow clay containers (bulla, or globular
envelopes) which were then sealed. The quantity
of tokens in each container came to be
expressed by impressing, on the container's
surface, one picture for each instance of the
token inside. They next dispensed with the
tokens, relying solely on symbols for the tokens,
drawn on clay surfaces. To avoid making a
picture for each instance of the same object (for
example: 100 pictures of a hat to represent 100
hats), they 'counted' the objects by using various
small marks. In this way the Sumerians added
"a system for enumerating objects to their
incipient system of symbols".
The original Mesopotamian writing system
(believed to be the world's oldest) was derived
around 3600 BC from this method of keeping
accounts. By the end of the 4th millennium
BC, [11] the Mesopotamians were using a
triangular-shaped stylus pressed into soft clay to
record numbers. This system was gradually
augmented with using a sharp stylus to indicate
what was being counted by means of
pictographs . Round-stylus and sharp-stylus
writing was gradually replaced by writing using a
wedge-shaped stylus (hence the term
cuneiform ), at first only for logograms , but by
the 29th century BC also for phonetic elements.
Around 2700 BC, cuneiform began to represent
syllables of spoken Sumerian . About that time,
Mesopotamian cuneiform became a general
purpose writing system for logograms, syllables,
and numbers. This script was adapted to
another Mesopotamian language, the East
Semitic Akkadian ( Assyrian and Babylonian )
around 2600 BC, and then to others such as
Elamite, Hattian , Hurrian and Hittite . Scripts
similar in appearance to this writing system
include those for Ugaritic and Old Persian . With
the adoption of Aramaic as the 'lingua franca' of
the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–609 BC), Old
Aramaic was also adapted to Mesopotamian
cuneiform. The last cuneiform scripts in
Akkadian discovered thus far date from the 1st
century AD.
Elamite scripts
Over the centuries, three distinct Elamite scripts
developed. Proto-Elamite is the oldest known
writing system from Iran. In use only for a brief
time (c. 3200–2900 BC), clay tablets with Proto-
Elamite writing have been found at different sites
across Iran. The Proto-Elamite script is thought
to have developed from early cuneiform (proto-
cuneiform). The Proto-Elamite script consists of
more than 1,000 signs and is thought to be
partly logographic .
Linear Elamite is a writing system attested in a
few monumental inscriptions in Iran. It was used
for a very brief period during the last quarter of
the 3rd millennium BC. It is often claimed that
Linear Elamite is a syllabic writing system
derived from Proto-Elamite, although this cannot
be proven since Linear-Elamite has not been
deciphered. Several scholars have attempted to
decipher the script, most notably Walther Hinz
and Piero Meriggi.
The Elamite cuneiform script was used from
about 2500 to 331 BC, and was adapted from
the Akkadian cuneiform . The Elamite cuneiform
script consisted of about 130 symbols, far fewer
than most other cuneiform scripts.
Cretan and Greek scripts
Further information: Cretan hieroglyphs , Linear
A , and Linear B
Cretan hieroglyphs are found on artifacts of Crete
(early-to-mid-2nd millennium BC, MM I to MM
III, overlapping with Linear A from MM IIA at the
earliest). Linear B , the writing system of the
Mycenaean Greeks, [12] has been deciphered
while Linear A has yet to be deciphered. The
sequence and the geographical spread of the
three overlapping, but distinct writing systems
can be summarized as follows: [12][A 1] Cretan
hieroglyphs were used in Crete from c. 1625 to
1500 BC; Linear A was used in the Aegean
Islands (Kea, Kythera , Melos , Thera ), and the
Greek mainland (Laconia ) from c. 18th century
to 1450 BC; and Linear B was used in Crete
( Knossos ), and mainland ( Pylos , Mycenae ,
Thebes , Tiryns) from c. 1375 to 1200 BC.
China
Further information: Oracle bone script and
Bronzeware script
The earliest surviving examples of writing in
China—inscriptions on so-called "oracle bones",
tortoise plastrons and ox scapulae used for
divination—date from around 1200 BC in the late
Shang dynasty . A small number of bronze
inscriptions from the same period have also
survived. [13] Historians have found that the type
of media used had an effect on what the writing
was documenting and how it was
used. [ citation needed ]
In 2003, archaeologists reported discoveries of
isolated tortoise-shell carvings dating back to
the 7th millennium BC, but whether or not these
symbols are related to the characters of the later
oracle-bone script is disputed. [14][15]
Egypt
Narmer Palette, with the two
serpopards representing unification
of Upper and Lower Egypt, 3000 B.
C.
The earliest known hieroglyphic inscriptions are
the Narmer Palette, dating to c. 3200 BC, and
several recent discoveries that may be slightly
older, though these glyphs were based on a
much older artistic rather than written tradition.
The hieroglyphic script was logographic with
phonetic adjuncts that included an effective
alphabet .
Writing was very important in maintaining the
Egyptian empire, and literacy was concentrated
among an educated elite of scribes. Only people
from certain backgrounds were allowed to train
to become scribes, in the service of temple,
pharaonic, and military authorities. The
hieroglyph system was always difficult to learn,
but in later centuries was purposely made even
more so, as this preserved the scribes' status.
The world's oldest known alphabet appears to
have been developed by Canaanite turquoise
miners in the Sinai desert around the mid-19th
century BC. [16] Around 30 crude inscriptions
have been found at a mountainous Egyptian
mining site known as Serabit el-Khadem. This
site was also home to a temple of Hathor, the
"Mistress of turquoise". A later, two line
inscription has also been found at Wadi el-Hol in
Central Egypt. Based on hieroglyphic prototypes,
but also including entirely new symbols, each
sign apparently stood for a consonant rather than
a word: the basis of an alphabetic system. It
was not until the 12th to 9th centuries, however,
that the alphabet took hold and became widely
used.
Indus Valley
Main article: Indus script
Indus script refers to short strings of symbols
associated with the Indus Valley Civilization
(which spanned modern-day Pakistan and North
India ) used between 2600 and 1900 BC. In spite
of many attempts at decipherments and claims,
it is as yet undeciphered. The term 'Indus script'
is mainly applied to that used in the mature
Harappan phase, which perhaps evolved from a
few signs found in early Harappa after 3500
BC, [17] and was followed by the mature
Harappan script. The script is written from right
to left, [18] and sometimes follows a
boustrophedonic style. Since the number of
principal signs is about 400–600, [19] midway
between typical logographic and syllabic scripts,
many scholars accept the script to be logo-
syllabic [20] (typically syllabic scripts have about
50–100 signs whereas logographic scripts have
a very large number of principal signs). Several
scholars maintain that structural analysis
indicates that an agglutinative language underlies
the script.
Central Asia
In 2001, archaeologists discovered that there
was a civilization in Central Asia that used
writing c. 2000 BC. An excavation near
Ashgabat, the capital of Turkmenistan, revealed
an inscription on a piece of stone that was used
as a stamp seal. [21]
Phoenician writing system and
descendants
The Proto-Sinaitic script, in which Proto-
Canaanite is believed to have been first written,
is attested as far back as the 19th century BC.
The Phoenician writing system was adapted
from the Proto-Canaanite script sometime before
the 14th century BC, which in turn borrowed
principles of representing phonetic information
from Hieratic , Cuneiform and Egyptian
hieroglyphs . This writing system was an odd
sort of syllabary in which only consonants are
represented. This script was adapted by the
Greeks, who adapted certain consonantal signs
to represent their vowels. The Cumae alphabet , a
variant of the early Greek alphabet, gave rise to
the Etruscan alphabet and its own descendants,
such as the Latin alphabet and Runes . Other
descendants from the Greek alphabet include
Cyrillic , used to write Bulgarian , Russian and
Serbian , among others. The Phoenician system
was also adapted into the Aramaic script, from
which the Hebrew and the Arabic scripts are
descended.
The Tifinagh script (Berber languages) is
descended from the Libyco-Berber script, which
is assumed to be of Phoenician origin.
Mesoamerica
A stone slab with 3,000-year-old writing, known
as the Cascajal Block, was discovered in the
Mexican state of Veracruz and is an example of
the oldest script in the Western Hemisphere,
preceding the oldest Zapotec writing by
approximately 500 years. [22][23][24] It is
thought to be Olmec .
Of several pre-Columbian scripts in
Mesoamerica , the one that appears to have been
best developed, and the only one to be
deciphered, is the Maya script. The earliest
inscription identified as Maya dates to the 3rd
century BC. [25] Maya writing used logograms
complemented by a set of syllabic glyphs,
somewhat similar in function to modern
Japanese writing.
South America
The Incas had no known script. Their quipu
system of recording information—based on knots
tied along one or many linked cords—was
apparently used for inventory and accountancy
purposes and could not encode textual
information. [ citation needed ]
Dacia
Three stone slabs were found by Romanian
archaeologist Nicolae Vlassa, in the mid-20th
century (1961) in Tărtăria (present-day Alba
County , Transylvania), Romania , ancient land of
Dacia , inhabited by Dacians, which were a
population who may have been related to the
Getaes and Thracians . One of the slabs contains
4 groups of pictographs divided by lines. Some
of the characters are also found in Ancient
Greek , as well as in Phoenician , Etruscan , Old
Italic and Iberian. The origin and the timing of
the writings are disputed, because there are no
precise evidence in situ , the slabs cannot be
carbon dated, because of the bad treatment of
the Cluj museum. There are indirect carbon
dates found on a skeleton discovered near the
slabs, that certifies the 5300–5500 BC period.
Modern importance
In the 21st century, writing has become an
important part of daily life as technology has
connected individuals from across the globe
through systems such as e-mail and social
media . Literacy has grown in importance as a
factor for success in the modern world. In the
United States, the ability to read and write are
necessary for most jobs, and multiple programs
are in place to aid both children and adults in
improving their literacy skills. For example, the
emergence of the writing center and community-
wide literacy councils aim to help students and
community members sharpen their writing skills.
These resources, and many more, span across
different age groups in order to offer each
individual a better understanding of their
language and how to express themselves via
writing in order to perhaps improve their
socioeconomic status .
Other parts of the world have seen an increase in
writing abilities as a result of programs such as
the World Literacy Foundation and International
Literacy Foundation , as well as a general push
for increased global communication.
See also
Writing portal
Asemic writing
Author
Boustrophedon text
Calligraphy
Collaborative writing
Communication
Composition (language)
Composition studies
Copyright Clause
Creative writing
Decipherment
Dyslexia
Essay
Fiction writing
Foreign language writing aid
Graphonomics
Interactive fiction
Journalism
Kishōtenketsu
Linguistics
List of writers' conferences
Literacy
Literary award
Literary criticism
Literary festival
Literature
Manuscript
Mechanical pencil
Orthography
Peer critique
Pencil
Printing
Publishing
Creation of the Sequoyah syllabary
Scriptorium
Story bible
Speech communication
Teaching Writing in the United States
Textual scholarship
Typography
White papers
Word processing
Writer
Writer's block
Writing bump
Writing circle
Writing in space
Writing slate
Writing style
Writing systems
Writer's voice
Notes
1. ^ Beginning date refers to first attestations,
the assumed origins of all scripts lie further
back in the past.
References
1. ^ a b Robinson 2003, p. 36.
2. ^ Wells, H. G. (1922). A Short History of the
World. p. 41.
3. ^ "The Khipu Database Project" .
4. ^ Chandler, Daniel (1990). "Do the write
thing?". Electric Word. 17: 27–30.
5. ^ Chandler, Daniel (1992). "The
phenomenology of writing by hand". Intelligent
Tutoring Media. 3 (2/3): 65–74.
doi: 10.1080/14626269209408310 .
6. ^ Chandler, Daniel (1993). "Writing strategies
and writers' tools". English Today: the
International Review of the English Language. 9
(2): 32–38. doi: 10.1017/
S0266078400000341 .
7. ^ Chandler, Daniel (1994). "Who needs
suspended inscription?". Computers and
Composition. 11 (3): 191–201.
doi: 10.1016/8755-4615(94)90012-4 .
8. ^ Chandler, Daniel (1995). The Act of Writing:
A Media Theory Approach . Aberystwyth: Prifysgol
Cymru.
9. ^ Haarmann, Harald (2002). Geschichte der
Schrift , C.H. Beck, ISBN 3-406-47998-7 , p. 20
10. ^ Rudgley, Richard (2000). The Lost
Civilizations of the Stone Age. New York: Simon
& Schuster. pp. 48–57.
11. ^ The Origin and Development of the
Cuneiform System of Writing, Samuel Noah
Kramer, Thirty Nine Firsts in Recorded History
pp. 381–383
12. ^ a b Olivier 1986 ,
pp. 377f. [ citation not found ]
13. ^ Boltz, William (1999). "Language and
Writing". In Loewe, Michael; Shaughnessy,
Edward L. The Cambridge History of Ancient
China . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
pp. 74–123. ISBN 978-0-521-47030-8 .
14. ^ "Archaeologists Rewrite History" . China
Daily . 12 June 2003. Retrieved 4 January 2012.
15. ^ Rincon, Paul (17 April 2003). " 'Earliest
writing' found in China" . BBC News. Retrieved
4 January 2012. "Signs carved into 8,600-year-
old tortoise shells found in China may be the
earliest written words, say archaeologists"
16. ^ Goldwasser, Orly. "How the Alphabet Was
Born from Hieroglyphs", Biblical Archaeology
Review, Mar/Apr 2010
17. ^ Whitehouse, David (1999). "'Earliest
writing' found " BBC
18. ^ (Lal 1966)
19. ^ (Wells 1999)
20. ^ (Bryant 2000)
21. ^ "Ancient writing found in Turkmenistan" .
BBC. 15 May 2001. Retrieved 30 March 2008.
"A previously unknown civilisation was using
writing in Central Asia 4,000 years ago, hundreds
of years before Chinese writing developed,
archaeologists have discovered. An excavation
near Ashgabat, the capital of Turkmenistan,
revealed an inscription on a piece of stone that
seems to have been used as a stamp seal."
22. ^ Wilford, John Noble (15 September 2006).
"Writing May Be Oldest in Western
Hemisphere" . New York Times . Retrieved 30
March 2008. "A stone slab bearing 3,000-year-
old writing previously unknown to scholars has
been found in the Mexican state of Veracruz, and
archaeologists say it is an example of the oldest
script ever discovered in the Western
Hemisphere."
23. ^ Briggs, Helen (14 September 2006).
" 'Oldest' New World writing found" . BBC.
Retrieved 30 March 2008. "Ancient civilisations
in Mexico developed a writing system as early
as 900 BC, new evidence suggests."
24. ^ Rodríguez Martínez, Maria del Carmen; et
al. (2006). "Oldest Writing in the New World" .
Science . 313 (5793): 1610–1614.
Bibcode : 2006Sci...313.1610R . doi : 10.1126/
science.1131492 . Retrieved 30 March 2008.
"A block with a hitherto unknown system of
writing has been found in the Olmec heartland of
Veracruz, Mexico. Stylistic and other dating of
the block places it in the early first millennium
before the common era, the oldest writing in the
New World, with features that firmly assign this
pivotal development to the Olmec civilization of
Mesoamerica."
25. ^ Saturno, William A.; David Stuart; Boris
Beltrán (3 March 2006). "Early Maya Writing at
San Bartolo, Guatemala". Science . 311 (5765):
1281–1283. Bibcode : 2006Sci...311.1281S .
doi: 10.1126/science.1121745 .
PMID 16400112 .
Further reading
A History of Writing: From Hieroglyph to
Multimedia, edited by Anne-Marie Christin,
Flammarion (in French, hardcover: 408
pages, 2002, ISBN 2-08-010887-5 )
In the Beginning: A Short History of the
Hebrew Language. By Joel M. Hoffman,
2004. Chapter 3 covers the invention of
writing and its various stages.
Origins of writing on AncientScripts.com
Museum of Writing : UK Museum of Writing
with information on writing history and
implements
On ERIC Digests: Writing Instruction: Current
Practices in the Classroom ; Writing
Development ; Writing Instruction: Changing
Views over the Years
Angioni, Giulio , La scrittura, una fabrilità
semiotica, in Fare, dire, sentire. L'identico e il
diverso nelle culture , il Maestrale, 2011, 149–
169. ISBN 978-88-6429-020-1
Children of the Code: The Power of Writing –
Online Video
Powell, Barry B. 2009. Writing: Theory and
History of the Technology of Civilization,
Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-6256-2
Reynolds, Jack 2004. Merleau-Ponty And
Derrida: Intertwining Embodiment And Alterity,
Ohio University Press
Rogers, Henry. 2005. Writing Systems: A
Linguistic Approach. Oxford: Blackwell.
ISBN 0-631-23463-2 (hardcover);
ISBN 0-631-23464-0 (paperback)
Ankerl, Guy (2000) [2000]. Global
communication without universal civilization .
INU societal research. Vol.1: Coexisting
contemporary civilizations: Arabo-Muslim,
Bharati, Chinese, and Western. Geneva: INU
Press. pp. 59–66, 235s.
ISBN 2-88155-004-5 .
Robinson, Andrew (2003). "The Origins of
Writing". In Crowley, David; Heyer, Paul.
Communication in History: Technology,
Culture, Society . Allyn and Bacon.
Falkenstein, A. 1965 Zu den Tafeln aus
Tartaria. Germania 43, 269–273
Haarmann, H. 1990 Writing from Old Europe.
The Journal of Indo-European Studies 17
Lazarovici, Gh., Fl. Drasovean & Z. Maxim
2000 The Eagle – the Bird of death,
regeneration resurrection and mesenger of
Godds. Archaeological and ethnological
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